MAUNTZ INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM (7TH INTL. SYMP. ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY PRODUCTION: FOSSIL; RENEWABLES; NUCLEAR; WASTE HANDLING , PROCESSING, AND STORAGE FOR ALL ENERGY PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES; ENERGY CONSERVATION)

The global level thermodynamic comprehension of the local thermodynamic equilibrium assumption of nonequilibrium thermodynamics is presented. How the Gibbs relation given by equilibrium thermodynamics also describes a passage on an irreversible path is demonstrated at the global thermodynamic level. Specifically it has been demonstrated that the Gibbs relation indeed also takes care of irreversibility for a spatially uniform system with internal source of irreversibility for example the chemical reactions at non-vanishing rates and the irreversibility originating in the gradients of intensities across the boundary of the system. Hence, thermodynamic functions appearing in Gibbs relation are those for equilibrium and nonequilibrium states. The former is the case when it is used to describe a passage through the succession of equilibrium states and the latter is the case while describing the the passage through the succession of nonequilibrium states, i.e. on irreversible trajectories. Thereby, it gets demonstrated that the scope of validity of the local thermodynamic equilibrium assumption of nonequilibrium thermodynamics is much wider than it has been understood so far.

Nanotechnology could be used to enhance the possibilities of developing conventional and stranded gas resources and to improve the drilling process and oil and gas production by making it easier to separate oil and gas in the reservoir. Nanotechnology can make the oil and gas industry considerably greener. There are numerous areas in which nanotechnology can contribute to more-efficient, less-expensive, and more-environmentally sound technologies than those that are readily available. We identified the following possibilities of nanotechnology in the petroleum industry: 1-Nanotechnology-enhanced materials that provide strength to increase performance in drilling, tubular goods, and rotating parts. 2- Designer properties to enhance hydro-phobic to enhance materials for water flooding applications. 3- Nanoparticulate wetting carried out using molecular dynamics 4- Lightweight materials that reduce weight requirements on offshore platforms 5- Nanosensors for improved temperature and pressure ratings 6- New imaging and computational techniques to allow better discovery, sizing, and characterization of reservoirs.
Nanoparticles have been successfully used in drilling mud’s for the past 50 years. Only recently all the other key areas of the oil industry, such as exploration, primary and assisted production, monitoring, refining and distribution, are approaching nanotechnologies as the potential Philosopher's stone for facing critical issues related to remote locations, harsh conditions (high-temperature and high-pressure formations), nonconventional reservoirs (heavy oils, tight gas, tar sands). The general aim is to bridge the gap between the oil industry and nanotechnology community using various initiatives such as consortia between oil and service companies and nanotechnology excellence centre’s, networking communities, workshops and conferences and even dedicated research units inside some oil companies. This paper provides an overview of the most interesting nanotechnology applications and highlights the potential benefits that could come from this technology to the oil and gas industry.

Production of biodiesel from food crops may cause negative economic, social, and environmental effects, therefore the alternatives are sought to satisfy the raw material demand for biodiesel production [1,2]. The aim of research is to evaluate the possibilities of application of non-food (Camelina sativa) ) oil, fatty wastes of animal origin and butanol for biodiesel production by applying biotechnological methods. The most effective biocatalyst suitable for the biodiesel synthesis from mixture of camelina oil and animal fat by transesterification with butanol was selected. The study involved six lipases as catalyst: Novozyme 435, Lipozyme TL IM, Lipozyme RM IM, F-EC, G “AMANO” 50. The synthesis of biodiesel was performed under the following conditions: temperature from 30 to 80oC; butanol-to-oil molar ratio from 1 to 7; enzyme content 3-17%; water content 0- 12%; duration 1-24 hours. Biodiesel properties were analysed according to the requirements of standards. Camelina oil is high in unsaturated fatty acids (more than 85 %) [3], iodine value of esters produced from camelina oil equals to 144 I2/100 g and exceeds the maximal value presented in the standard. In contrary, animal fatty waste is characterized by low iodine value (52 g I2/100 g) [4], the content of saturated fatty acids equals to 53 %. In order to meet the quality requirements presented in the standard, mixture camelina oil and animal fat in ratio 1:3 could be used for biodiesel production. For the investigations biocatalyst - lipase Lipozyme TL IM was selected. The optimal conditions for the production of biodiesel fuel were determined: 9 % of the lipase Lipozyme TL IM (of the weight of oil); molar ratio of oil and butanol – 1:6; temperature – 40 °C; duration – 6 hours in the first production stage. The optimal conditions of the second stage are as follows: lipase content – 5 %; molar ratio of oil and butanol – 1:8; temperature – 40 °C; duration of synthesis – 6 hours. It was determined that butylesters meet the standard requirements, when the additives of antioxidants Ionol BF 200 (1000 ppm) and depressant Chimec 6635 (2000 ppm) are used.

With the world's population increasing from seven billion currently to approximately nine billion by the year 2040, achieving a healthy lifestyle for all people on earth will depend, in part, on the availability of affordable energy, especially electricity. This work considers the various choices, or options, for producing electricity and the consequences associated with each option. The options are fossil, renewable, and nuclear. The consequences associated with these three options are addressed in five different areas: public health and safety, environmental effects, economics, sustainability, and politics. All options are needed, but some options are better than others when compared in the five areas. This presentation is a brief summary of a short course entitled “Energy Choices and Consequences”, which was created by the author several years ago and is continuously updated. The presentation will provide updated information through October of 2020.

Gas reservoirs can be classified into dry gas reservoirs, wet gas reservoirs and Gas condensate reservoirs. In gas condensate reservoirs, the reservoir temperature lies between the critical temperature and the cricondentherm. The gas will drop out liquid by retrograde condensation in the reservoir, when the pressure falls below the dew point. This heavy part of the gas has found many application in industry and also in daily life and by remaining in reservoir not only this valuable liquid is lost but also its accumulation will result in forming a condensate bank near the well bore region which makes a considerable reduction in well productivity.
In this paper, gas injection will be studied in a gas condensate reservoir to increase the recovery factor moreover the capability of different injection gases (CO2, N2, CH4 and separator gas) will be compared through different injection schemes. The injection schemes which will be considered are: different injection rates, different injection pressures and different injection durations. We think that the response of the reservoir in different cases will be different but that injection of all of them can increase the condensate recovery. As many parameters can affect the decision of selecting the injection scheme, other than the gas and condensate recovery factor, doing an economical evaluation is inevitable to take them all into account and determine the best one.
In this paper, the efficiency of different schemes of gas injection and gas recycling in condensate recovery from a gas condensate reservoir, through compositional simulation has been studied and compared. The effect of changing injection rate, injection pressure and injection duration has been investigated by three injection gases (N2, CO2, CH4) and gas recycling. The appropriate and optimum case can be selected considering the results of the simulation work and doing an economical evaluation, taking into account all the parameters such as: the price of the gas and condensate, the price of the injection gases and the cost of the facilities needed in each scheme with regard to the present level.

Formation damage, a reduction in the natural capability of a reservoir to produce its fluids, such as a decrease in porosity or permeability, or both, can occur near the well bore face (easier to repair) or deep into the rock (harder to repair). Formation damage is caused by several mechanisms: 1- physical plugging of pores by mud solids, 2- alteration of reservoir rock wettability, 3- precipitation of insoluble materials in pore spaces, 4- clay swelling in pore spaces, 5- migration of fines into pore throats, 6- introduction of an immobile phase, and 7- emulsion formation and blockage. Damage can occur when sensitive formations are exposed to drilling fluids. In this paper we discuss about damage during drilling, completion, production, work-over, what is the influence on formation damage?, What properties most influence the effect of formation damage?, damage mechanisms and how does formation mineralogy and clay chemistry influence damage? What about fines migration, scale, paraffin and asphaltenes, damage prevention and damage removal?

Matrix acid stimulation is a relatively simple technique that is one of the most cost-effective methods to enhance well productivity and improve hydrocarbon recovery. Carbonate acidizing is usually performed with HCL except in situations where temperatures are very high and corrosion is an issue. Acids attack steel to produce solutions of iron salts while generating hydrogen gas. Over the years, many different acidizing systems have been developed for specific applications.
Matrix acidizing, with the appropriate systems in correctly identified candidate wells, is the most cost-effective way to enhance oil production in sandstone and carbonate reservoirs. Increased understanding of the chemistry and physics of the acidizing process as well as improvements in well site implementation have resulted in better acidizing success. Use of computer software that includes all known rules and guidelines for sandstone acidizing can greatly improve the success ratio by eliminating inappropriate designs and standardizing treatments. New acid systems with improved performance were developed specifically to address many of the problems inherent in sandstone acidizing.

Keywords: Emerging Markets, Mobile Power, Power Generation, Floating Power Plants, Truck Mounted Power Plants, Powerships, Powertrailers, Emergency Power, Fast Lowering Carbon Footprint, Sustainability, Renewable Energy, Community Power
ABSTRACT
VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity) conditions are emerging all over the world and in sort of forms. Such conditions emerge in recent years primarily triggered due to the fact of anthropogenic climate change, affecting the weather conditions with severe hits in form of hurricanes, typhoons, sudden appearing devastating microclimate occurrence or similar. Earthquakes, volcano eruptions form also VUCA conditions. The COVID-19 pandemic recently started hitting global economies and will for sure prevent governments from their regular infrastructure planning and implementation works. In the opposite sometimes VUCA conditions appear due to a sudden vectoral change in a positive direction. Despite the technological and political progress of humankind in form of communication and information access (i.e. internet), sustainable production (industrial, farming), digitalization, civil rights etc. VUCA conditions prevail and make emergency solutions essential. Emergency solutions tend to be more and more demanded by markets and governments, even leading to be used as mid-term and long-term solutions meeting the needs of consumers. This paper will introduce the vectors leading to emergency conditions and needs in the power generation sphere and provide an insight on medium to large size powerships and powertrailers, while addressing major power generation trends such as renewable energy and storage technologies and their recent markets gains.

This presentation for the first time discusses the nonequilibrium thermodynamics of dynamic chemical equilibrium in a wide number of chemical reactions. They include two-step consecutive reactions and multi-step chain reactions. From chemical kinetics we learn that the dynamic chemical equilibria get established when there are (i) fast pre-equilibrium steps or (ii) produced highly reactive intermediate chemical species during the course of a reaction and for their concentrations the Bodenstein steady state approximation gets established. There result Q's, the quotients of concentration, as f(T, p) which generates stoichiometric equivalence of chemical potentials of the chemical species involved therein. In some cases one or more chemical affinities, A 's, of the steps involved in the reaction vanish but it is not true in all cases. Irrespective of vanishing or non-vanishing of A 's of the involved steps one still can use corresponding standard thermodynamic relation between corresponding dynamic equilibrium constant and the corresponding standard state chemical affinity, which is the thermodynamic condition of dynamic chemical equilibrium, corresponding chemical affinities are (i) that of some steps and they assume a zero value or (ii) when none of chemical affinities of the steps of the reaction vanish but one or more internal chemical affinities, become equal to zero. Also in such cases the Q(T,p) 's can be equally calculated using the volume independent partition functions, q_k^* 's, and the Avogadro number L. A thermodynamic condition of explosion in a chemical reaction gets described by the attainment of very large, positive or negative, values of chemical affinities of the steps involved.

Most countries depend on oil. States will go to great lengths to acquire an oil production capability or to be assured access to the free flow of oil. History has provided several examples in which states were willing to go to war to obtain oil resources or in defense of an oil producing region. States have even become involved in conflicts over areas which may only possibly contain oil resources. This trend is likely to continue in the future until a more economical resource is discovered or until the world's oil wells run dry. One problem associated with this dependence on oil is the extremely damaging effects that production, distribution, and use have on the environment. Furthermore, accidents and conflict can disrupt production or the actual oil resource, which can also result in environmental devastation. One potential solution to this problem is to devise a more environmentally-safe resource to fuel the economies of the world.

The main purpose of a primary cementing job is to provide effective zonal isolation for the life of the well so that oil and gas can be produced safely and economically. Oil Well Cement as the name suggests, is used for the grouting of the oil wells, also known as the cementing of the oil wells. This is done for both, the off-shore and on-shore oil wells. It is manufactured from the clinker of Portland cement and also from cements that have been hydraulically blended. Oil Well Cement can resist high pressure as well as very high temperatures and sets very slowly because it has organic 'retarders' which prevent it from setting too fast. Oil Well Cement has proved to be very beneficial for the petroleum industry due to its characteristics. For it is due to the Oil Well Cement that the oil wells function properly. The various raw materials required for the production of Oil Well Cement are: 1-Limestone 2-Iron Ore 3-Coke 4-Iron Scrap.
Cement is also used to seal formations to prevent loss of drilling fluid and for operations ranging from setting kick-off plugs to plugging and abandonment. One of the most famous work-over jobs on an oil well to prevent extra gas and water production and to plug their passages is oil well cementing. The important things which we must consider in an oil well cementing job are: rheological, and physical properties such as density, fluid loss, thickening time, and water cement ratio under high pressure and temperature, effect of accelerators and retarders on cement slurries, compressive strength and permeability of cement plugs, additives for special applications such as elevated temperature and high influx of electrolytes. This paper presents the results of our studies about these subjects in oil well cementing.

The requirements in the power generation with biogas, gas and diesel engines rise. Ever more flexibility at a maximum operational reliability and a long-life time are required of them at the same time, so the requirements for the oil and the oil condition monitoring grow correspondingly. This presentation provides information about an online oil condition monitoring system to give a solution to the mentioned priorities. The focus is set to the detection of contamination effects in contrast to oil changes in gearboxes where the additive degradation is the dominating effect.
The online oil sensor system measures the components conductivity, the relative permittivity and the temperature independently from each other. Based on a very sensitive measurement method with high accuracy even small changes in the conductivity and dielectric constant of the oil composition can be detected reliably. The sensor system effectively controls the proper operation conditions of the engines and gearboxes instantaneously signals any kind of abnormal parameter change.
The system enables damage prevention of the engine by an advanced warning time of critical operation conditions and an enhanced oil exchange interval realized by a precise measurement of the electrical conductivity, the relative permittivity and the oil temperature. The WearSens® Index (WSi) which has been successfully implemented in wind power gearbox applications is quite flexible and can be adjusted to the engine monitoring as well. The mathematical model of the WSi combines all measured values and its gradients in one single parameter for a comprehensive monitoring to prevent the asset from expensive damage. Furthermore, the WSi enables a long-term prognosis on the next oil change by 24/7 server data logging. Corrective procedures and/or maintenance can be carried out before actual damage occurs. Raw data and WSi results of a landfill gas engine installation is shown. Short-term and long-term analysis of the data show significant trends and events, which are discussed more in detail.
24/7 monitoring of the system during operation enables specific preventive and condition-based maintenance and independent of rigid inspection intervals.

References:
[1] Gegner, J., Kuipers, U. and Mauntz, M.: Ölsensorsystem zur Echtzeitzustands-überwachung von technischen Anlagen und Maschinen, Technisches Messen 77, pp. 283-292, (2010)
[2] Mauntz, M., Gegner J., Klingauf S. and Kuipers U.: Continuous Wear Measurement in Tribological Systems to Control Operational Wear Damage with a new Online Oil Sensor System, TAE Technische Akademie Esslingen, 19th International Colloquium Tribology, Esslingen, January 21-23, 2014, (2014)
[3] Mauntz, M., Kuipers, U. and Peuser, J.: Continuous, online detection of critical operation conditions and wear damage with a new oil condition monitoring system, WearSens®, 14th International Conference on Tribology - SERIATRIB ’15 Proceedings, Belgrad, Serbian Tribology Society Kragujevac, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, ISBN: 978-86-7083-857-4, S. 283-288, (2015)
[4] Mauntz, M., Kuipers, U. and Peuser, J.: New oil condition monitoring system, WearSens® enables continuous, online detection of critical operating conditions and wear damage, Malaysian International Tribology Conference 2015 - MITC2015, Penang, Malaysia on November 16-17, 2015, Conference Proceedings, ISBN: 978-967-13625-0-1, S. 179-180, (2015)

The protection of pipelines from external corrosion is commonly accomplished by the combination of pipeline coatings with cathodic protection, to protect those portions of the pipeline that are inadequately coated or where the coating contains defects. Defects in pipeline coatings that expose bare steel are termed holidays. Conventional anode resistance formulas that ignore the current and potential distribution on the pipes are inadequate for the modelling of pipelines with holidays. Current and potential distribution must also be considered when modelling multiple pipelines. Factors such as variations in coating quality and stray current interference have an effect on the quality of the cathodic protection system. Another major factor in the design and maintenance of the underground infrastructure (e.g. pipelines, storage tanks, tunnels etc) is the electrical interference (electrical pollution) from power lines, railways and other electrical sources. Traditional resistance formulas are inadequate in modelling these complex interactions. Pipes with coated surfaces can be modelled in several ways. It was assumed in the analysis that the coating is a highly resistive barrier.

Keywords: Predictive, Preventive, Projective, Power, Energy, Process, Air Seperation, Cement, Refinery, Ships, Powership, Power Plant, High Efficiency, OPEX, CAPEX,
Predictive maintenance evaluates the condition of equipment by performing periodic (offline) or preferably continuous (online) equipment condition monitoring. The ultimate goal of the approach is to perform maintenance at a scheduled point in time when the maintenance activity is most cost-effective and before the equipment loses performance within a threshold. This results in a reduction in unplanned downtime costs because of failure where for instance costs can be in the hundreds of thousands per day depending on industry. In energy production, in addition to loss of revenue and component costs, fines can be levied for none delivery increasing costs even further. This is in contrast to time- and/or operation count-based maintenance, where a piece of equipment gets maintained whether it needs it or not. Time-based maintenance is labor intensive and ineffective in identifying problems that develop between scheduled inspections, and so it is not cost-effective. The fundamental idea is to transform the traditional ‘fail and fix’ maintenance practice to a ‘predict and prevent’ approach. The "predictive" component of predictive maintenance stems from the goal of predicting the future trend of the equipment's condition. This approach uses principles of statistical process control to determine at what point in the future maintenance activities will be appropriate.
Most predictive inspections are performed while equipment is in service, thereby minimizing disruption of normal system operations. Adoption of predictive maintenance can result in substantial cost savings and higher system reliability. Reliability-centered maintenance emphasizes the use of predictive maintenance techniques in addition to traditional preventive measures. When properly implemented, it provides companies with a tool for achieving lowest asset net present costs for a given level of performance and risk. One goal is to transfer the predictive maintenance data to a computerized maintenance management system so that the equipment condition data is sent to the right equipment object to trigger maintenance planning, work order execution, and reporting. By doing so, the OPEX and CAPEX saving feature of predictive maintenance solution value is accelerated. This paper and its attachments provide an insight of how the products of, as an example, cmc Instruments GmbH and others, help users to achieve their goals in setting up real and beneficiary PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS.

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting using semiconductor photoelectrodes is one of the most promising and environmentally friendly methods to produce hydrogen from water by utilizing renewable solar energy. Enormous efforts are being devoted to find adequate semiconductor materials for photoelectrodes. Tungsten oxide (WO3) is one of the most attractive semiconductor materials for PEC water splitting due to its energetically favorable valence band position for water oxidation, suitable band gap energy (~ 2.6 eV) to harvest considerable light within the solar spectrum (~ 12%), and appreciable photostability in water (< pH 4) [1]. In this study, we developed a facile, economical flame vapor deposition (FVD) process, in which a newly designed double-wire-feeder was incorporated into the flame reactor to realize constant feed rates of two solid precursors. Vertically-aligned nanowire-based sub-stoichiometric tungsten oxide thin films with controllable thickness were prepared with fast growth rate up to few hundred nanometer per minute, which could be converted to photoactive monoclinic WO3 by postannealing. The growth of branched NTs was realized in a FVD system incorporated with double wire feeders. Heterogeneous doping of nanowire and nanotree structures of WO3 was also achieved by this FVD system [2-5]. The PEC measurements with the prepared composite photocatalyst working electrode were carried out using a three-electrode electrochemical custom-built photocell embedded with a quartz window and equipped with saturated calomel electrode as reference electrode and a platinum mesh as counter electrode [3]. The nanostructured composite thin film prepared by FVD with double-wire-feeder in this study showed the better performances for PEC water splitting than those recently reported in the literature.

The electricity markets in Europe were designed with the aim of lowering energy supply costs and thus increasing the competitiveness of the European industry. The large electricity markets in the USA also operate to reduce over-all costs in a certain network area. In a market dominated by fossil fuel power plants such a market works. The classic merit order is made up of nuclear generation plants (marginal costs almost zero) via coal and gas fired assets up to oil or gas fired peaking plants (low efficiency, high marginal costs) for the high demand hours. Plants with very low marginal costs and little flexibility will bid at (close to) zero. They accept the price level set by others. Higher cost (flexible) plants will bid more in line with opportunity costs and try to optimize income over fewer load hours.
Network capacity could keep pace with the growth of demand and generation because this growth was predictable and stable. Planning and building a large generation asset can take a decade. Today, the share of renewable generation in the generation mix is increasingly being felt. There are days in spring and summer on which Germany is completely supplied by solar and wind. This rapid change in the generation mix puts into question whether the current market design is still adequate.
The current electricity market design is built on a few assumptions:
1. that the owners of a power plant do have marginal costs,
2. that the owners of a power plant can decide to run the plant or not,
3. that location (in the power network) is not very relevant.
These effects are strengthened by the fact that in large areas power demand is not growing. The trend of energy efficiency will not be reversed. As a result of the above, (term) wholesale power prices have now become low and also little volatile. Price movements are limited because periods of oversupply of renewables are followed by periods of oversupply of fossil fueled power. The ‘lubricant’ of a market: price volatility has disappeared in the longer term markets and is only still there in the very short term markets.The other ‘new’ phenomenon is a shortage of network capacity. The planning and construction of power networks takes much longer that than planning and construction of (especially) solar PV assets. Also, the unplanned production pattern of renewable assets raises the question whether enough network capacity for all produced kWh’s has to be available at all times.
Although the variable costs of solar and wind may be low, these sources are not at all for free. The lack of meaningful market prices is not only a problem for fossil power plants. It is definitely also an issue for solar and wind. We need new signals to drive investment and dispatch. Because CAPEX are so dominant in renewable generation, the risk is very ‘front-loaded’. No investor will put his money in a market where (marginal) prices are close to zero. In a CAPEX game, the investment risk will have to be allocated up-front. It is hard to see how generators will take this risk on the basis of a market in which marginal system cost are decreasing. Long term fixed pricing for the generation capacity will have to be agreed before the investment is made.
What then has to be steered (through price signals) is the capacity to balance supply and demand. In other words, capacity to transport, store and deliver is much more important than the energy. Capacity is the real scarce resource. A market for capacity will have to be developed. What is meant here is not the capacity market advocated by power producers. It is not about back-up. What is meant here is the long term and short term pricing of capacity on the grid. This makes transparent where there is a scarcity of capacity and what is the value of linking supply to demand. If we can put such a system in place then the rational solution can be sought by all market players. The article elaborates how this can be done.

The sunlight inexhaustibly falls on the earth. In order to realize sustainable society, it is necessary to utilize its energy effectively. However, energy of the sunlight is difficult to use because of its low coherency. A solar-pumped laser that directly converts sunlight into laser was realized in 1965 [1]. In 2012, the authors succeeded in developing a solar-pumped laser system of 120 W using a large 4 m2 of Fresnel lens as the primary focusing concentrator [2]. However, the primary concentrator was so large that it was difficult to create with high accuracy and transparency. As a result, only 42% of solar light collection efficiency was obtained [3].
In this study, a solar concentrating system using a Fresnel lens and a flat mirror of 1 m2 class was developed. As a result, a solar light collection efficiency of 58.5% was realized. Furthermore, this system is able to track the sun with controlling yaw and pitch angles and it can keep the laser head horizontally.
The sunlight collected by the Fresnel lens is re-focused into the laser medium by the solar cavity. In this study, the solar cavity was manufactured by 3D printer using ABS resin. Using a 3D printer, it is able to accelerate optimization of solar cavity because required time is much shorter than other methods such as milling and drilling metal materials. We realized 2.43W laser output using the solar cavity of ABS resin made by 3D printer. However, we could keep lasing only for 18 seconds. This is probably due to the deformation of the solar cavity made of ABS resin because collected solar power is partially absorbed by it.
In the future, we will manufacture a solar cavity that does not deform due to the heat generated by light collection, aiming for stable lasing.

In view of the prevailing over skepticism about the sound thermodynamic base of the expression of the rate constant given by the traditional transition state theory (TST) of bimolecular reactions, its foundational ingredients are revisited in this paper. The inference drawn earlier of the existence of quasiequilibrium between the reactants and activated complexes has been properly amended. The need for this has been elucidated by showing that the use of quasiequilibrium amounts to use it as a pre-equilibrium step hence it implies that the conversion of activated complexes to the product molecules must be a slow step according to the basic principles of chemical kinetics. However, it has been demonstrated that the existence time of an activated complex is less than the time required to complete half of the molecular vibration of the activated complex. Which means they are highly reactive ones. Therefore, it is not the case of pre-equilibrium but, indeed, is the case of a steady state for the forward moving activated complexes, which is what Arnot had advocated earlier. However, we have demonstrated that the said steady state for the concentration of the forward moving activated complexes is a case of dynamic chemical equilibrium between the reactants and the forward moving activated complexes whose sound thermodynamic base has been elucidated by describing the corresponding nonequilibrium thermodynamics. Thus, the much-needed description of the thermodynamic base of TST given expression of the rate constant has been accomplished.

The ongoing accumulation of greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere from various anthropogenic sources is believed to be the primary cause of the increasing earth's surface temperature. CO2 is the most significant GHG where the top anthropogenic sources of CO2 emissions are related to electricity generation and stationery industry sectors powered by fossil fuels. Among other technologies, carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is expected to play a key role in addressing the GHG emission challenges. Since the early days of the oil and gas industry, CO2 injection in oilfields has been recognized to be an effective method for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). However, the worldwide CO2-EOR implementations remain modest. In this talk, the 50-year history of CO2-EOR is reviewed, where we highlight the key attributes of successes and failures. The recovery benefits and the challenges of CO2-EOR in relation to CO2 capture, transportation, and oil displacement in the subsurface are discussed. We then show, for the first time, a comprehensive map of the current CO2 emissions from stationary industrial sources in Saudi Arabia. We discuss the potential of CO2-EOR in Saudi Arabia and provide an estimate of CO2 storage in depleted hydrocarbon fields, as well as other geological formations, including deep aquifers and CO2 mineralization in basalts. We close with some thoughts regarding the role of the oil and gas industry in Saudi Arabia in capitalizing on this opportunity by promoting CCUS as a win-win technology.

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