INTL. SYMP. ON SUSTAINABLE SECONDARY BATTERY MANUFACTURING AND RECYCLING

Potassium-ion batteries (KIBs) are promising substitutes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in grid-scale energy storage due to the Earth-abundancy of potassium [1]. Practical KIB applications, however, are hindered by slow diffusion kinetics and severe structural deterioration as the large cation is cycled in and out of the electrode, respectively leading to low specific capacity and short lifetime [2].
Herein we synthesize layered alkali titanates as electrode materials for KIBs by chemical reaction between nanoparticles and aqueous alkali hydroxides. By increasing the interlayer spacing of titanates, we show improvements in electrochemical performances in terms of specific capacity, charging rate and cycle life. Larger interlayer spacing allows quick and increased ion storage [3]. The adjustment of reaction temperature, concentration and types of hydroxides has direct effects on the interlayer spacing of these titanates. As a result, we have produced a range of alkali titanates with different interlayer spacing. Some as-prepared titanates with larger interlayer spacing deliver electrochemical performances for KIBs comparable to titanium-oxide based LIBs [4], [5]. Our work provides a method to design future energy storage electrode materials for large ions.

The method of physical vapor deposition has been tested for the manufacture of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery anodes. The anode was fabricated using Virtual Cathode Deposition1 (VCD) which enables direct deposition of 20 μm thick carbon active material onto a 25 μm polypropylene separator, followed by deposition of a 2 μm copper current collector. Carbon polymorphism2 induced by the deposition process is responsible for active material high gravimetric and volumetric capacity allowing anode areal capacity up to 4.2 mAh/cm2 at the 0.1 C charge rate. The PVD process increases the purity of active materials and quality control compared to the state-of-the-art wet chemical3 method. Currently, the production of a 24 kWh Nissan Leaf’s battery pack requires about 25 MWh, more than 80% of which is spent on drying the electrodes and dry room conditioning. VCD eliminates use of solvents that saves the energy for electrode drying and increase the environmental safety of battery production.

Lithium ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely used as energy-storage systems for a variety of power devices. It is necessary to further develop LIBs toward high-functional devices, such as electric vehicles and mobile electronics. Nowadays, all-solid-state LIBs have been of much interest because of high energy densities and high safety. All solid-state LIBs gave a lot of advantages in terms of size, flexibility, cost, and performance. In the case of oxide-type all-solid-state LIBs, however, there are serious problems to be solved toward practical uses. For example, diffusion of lithium ions at their interfaces between different solid materials is still too poor to operate charge/discharge in batteries.
Our group has studied high-quality crystals for applications as energy and environmental materials by using a flux method. The flux method is a nature-mimetic liquid-phase crystal growth technique. It is possible to construct a molten reaction field at any temperature with facile setup, and give a designed shape to crystals, including crystal faces, which has never been achieved using other methods like solid state reactions. Recently, we have proposed and applied the flux technique to battery materials to create “all-crystal (solid)-state LIBs”. We have expected that flux crystal growth gave (I) crystal-shape controls of active materials (and solid electrolytes), (II) construction of good interfaces in electrodes among cathodes, and (III) solid electrolytes and anodes. As a result, smooth ionic transportation through bulks and their interfaces would be realized in all-crystal (solid)-state LIBs. Our concept of using the flux crystal growth method would provide new aspects to make innovations in oxide-type all-solid-state LIBs as next-generation energy storage. The details of material and interfacial designs for next-generation batteries will be introduced in the SIPS2019.
Acknowledgement:
This research was partially supported by MEXT-Regional Innovation Ecosystems, JST-CREST (JPMJCR1322), JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) (25249089&17H01322) and JST-ALCA.

Given the massive shifts facing the future energy-environment paradigm, it is pertinent to evaluate the centrality of “New Thinking” within this energy-environment [1] nexus in the evolving scenario. This paper will look into aspects of energy storage, advanced materials [2] and environmental issues in electric grids, transportation, renewable energy, and resources. It is generally agreed that 2D-based materials have a bright future in electrochemical energy devices as they can combine good electrical conductivity & connectivity with a suitable porous structure that is able to facilitate rapid redox reactions. 2D materials are combined with other electroactive components for optimal synergy. A number of approaches for making the electrode structure will be presented. Recycling and recovery of upgraded materials from spent batteries are crucial considerations for the future use of batteries. A number of factors including future research trajectories and resources strategy issues will be considered.

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have a theoretical capacity of 1675 mAhg^-1[1], five times that of conventional Li-ion batteries[2], facilitated by the sulfur cathode undergoing a series of redox reactions to form lithium polysulfides (PS)[3]. However, the continuous diffusion of PS through the electrolyte results in progressive loss of electrical contact to the active material and hence poor capacity retention with repeated cycling[4, 5]. A lightweight, electrically conductive host framework compatible with scalable manufacture is therefore required to exploit sulfur’s low cost and abundance[6] in batteries with sustained high capacity.
Templated mesoporous carbons, including CMK-3, are electronically conductive and have a hierarchical porous structure suitable for constraining PS[7]. However, graphene and related materials (GRMs) are compatible with higher throughput manufacturing processes[8]. In addition to high conductivity[8], mechanical strength[8], and surface area, GRMs offer opportunities for tunable functionalisation to increase PS binding energy to the host framework[9].
Here, we investigate the use of graphene nanoplatelets synthesised by microfluidization[10] (GNPs) and graphene oxide (GO) with CMK-3 as composite sulfur hosts for Li-S batteries. We find that a composite of GNPs and CMK-3 improves the capacity of Li-S batteries, and that a composite of GO and CMK-3 improves the capacity retention of batteries for the first ~100 cycles, compared to CMK-3 alone in identical conditions. The incorporation of GNPs appears to enhance the contribution of long-chain PS (Li2Sx for 4≤x≤8) to the cell’s capacity, demonstrating improved constraint of this active material in contact with the conducting host. This improves the cycling capability of Li-S batteries, facilitating their application in electric vehicles and grid-scale renewable energy storage.

A semi-interpenetrating network of PEDOT and PEO was used as a highly effective supercapacitor electrode. Wang and co-authors in 2017[1] detailed a process in which an semi-interpenetrating polyethylenedioxythiophene/polyethylene oxide (PEDOT/PEO) network with mixed ionic and electronic conductivity could be synthesized in a simultaneous fashion[1]. The ionically conducting PEO was phase separated with the electronically conductive PEDOT, leading to a larger triple phase boundary and thus a higher capacity[1,2]. The phase separation of PEDOT and PEO also allowed for mechanical robustness and increased cycling ability[1]. While these films represent a significant step forward for flexible electronics, solution casting, the current fabrication process, is not suitable for large scale production. In this work, films of this interpenetrating polymer network were made through inkjet printing[3]. The viscosity of the polymer precursor is 31 cP, at the upper limit of what a typical inkjet printhead can handle (~20 cP)[3,4]. The raw prepolymer also displays shear thinning behavior, dropping linearly to 21 cP between shear rates of 130 and 210 s-1. To make a more suitable precursor for inkjet printing, ethanol was added to decrease the viscosity of the precursor. Ethanol is a commonly used solvent for inkjet printing as is has an optimal viscosity (1.1 cP at STP), low vapor pressure, and good wetting properties. Additionally, ethanol is not known to polymerize via free-radical polymerization[5] and will not compromise the chemical integrity of the interpenetrating network [5]. Ethanol is a relatively safe organic solvent and is soluble in the precursor. It is also soluble in methanol, which is used in the initial polymer processing to clear away excess unpolymerized precursor. Cyclic voltammograms of both neat and inkjet printed films in an aqueous LiClO4 electrolyte with a platinum counter electrode and an Ag/AgCl reference electrode were taken. The results of the two cyclic voltammograms were comparable and showed a similar capacitance.

Two dimensional (2D) materials provide well-defined ion diffusion pathways for sodium and other ions, facilitating ion insertion and movement, which is difficult to achieve in conventional 3D electrode materials. As a result, high power densities can be achieved in 2D electrodes with rapid ion and electron transport. Although heavier than lithium, Na+ and K+ have key advantages in addition to their lower price – their lower desolvation energy, compared to smaller Li+, improves kinetics of ion insertion into the electrode and may lead to higher power. Multivalent ions, such as Mg2+ and Al3+, may store 2 – 3 electrons per ion, but their movement in 3D bulk or porous solids is restricted due to the limited lattice space, leading to slow charge/discharge processes and inferior stability of charge storage devices. Metallic 2D materials offer distinct advantages for battery electrodes. They are: i) highly conductive, with high density of states at the Fermi level and metal-like carrier densities; ii) chemically diverse and tailorable, allowing for systematic variation of both their intrinsic composition and their post-synthetically modified surface chemistry; iii) exceptionally rigid, with bending stiffness values comparable to graphene that are ideally suited for flexible energy storage devices; and iv) hydrophilic, allowing for co-assembly with polar species and enabling sustainable, green processability. These attributes make them especially promising for next-generation of rechargeable batteries with improved storage capability, faster charging and much longer lifetimes, even when combined with larger and higher charged ions. In this presentation, I will present our recent progress on synthesis of battery electrodes with metallic 2D materials and their performance as supercapacitors, electrochemical actuators and batteries.

Molten salts are very promising fluids for their various properties, and have historically been used for industrial production of metals such as aluminum with an annual production of more than 60 million tons. During the recent 20 years, new generations of molten salt technologies have been developed through breakthrough in research. These technologies are very attractive since they offer scalable techniques for green and/or efficient production of advanced materials from metals and nanodiamonds to functional nanostructures for many high-value applications. In this talk, the molten salt preparation of graphene and graphene-based composites and their applications in energy storage devices are discussed. Particular attention will be paid to our recent experimental studies on facile preparation of high quality carbon nanostructures, and their composites for use as the electrode materials of supercapacitors and lithium ion batteries.

With the ever-increasing demands of modern societies, energy generation, storage, and distribution are becoming increasingly important research fields. Currently, one of the most promising areas of research and development is sodium ion battery (SiB) technology, which has a range of potential applications, but remains particularly suited for use in stationary systems.
Here we will discuss SiB systems in terms of what may be considered its three most significant components: anodes, electrolytes, and cathodes. SiB anodes are mainly based on hard carbon materials, due to their attractive combination of low cost and high energy density. However, there has also been interest in other systems, such as intermetallic alloying materials and metal oxides, as well as exploitation of specific electrolyte co-solvation effects, so as to enable the use of graphite. In general, the SiB research community uses organic electrolytes which are analogous to already existing Lithium ion batteries (LiB). Recently, however, there has been growing interest in developing new electrolytes which are specifically tailored for use in SiBs, such as optimized liquid and solid electrolytes. At the present time, cathodes are one of the most explored SiB components with a plethora of options to choose from, including Prussian blue and organic materials. The most promising are polyanionic and layered materials, with their good combinations of electrochemical performance, low cost, stability and available constituents. Although interest in SiB technology is only relatively new, when compared to LiBs, it has been already developed at the prototyping level.
A general overview of the most interesting electrode and electrolyte materials for Na-ion batteries, paying special attention to those related to the current prototypes, will be presented. By examining this topic in detail, it will be shown that there exists a strong drive to exploit this technology and that there are a wide range of opportunities to develop new and improved SiB technologies.

High-energy lithium-sulfur batteries are now earmarked as a viable means to meet the ever-rising demands of large-scale utilities and long-range electric vehicles.¹ Their commercialization, however, has not come true yet due to the issues with the dissolution and diffusion of intermediate polysulfides in liquid organic electrolytes, which cause serious capacity degradation and low Coulombic efficiency. To solve these problems, a layer of material with a nano-architecture made from tiny metal oxides is placed on the surface of the sulfur cathode. This can trap fragments of the active material when they break off, keeping them electrochemically accessible and allowing the material to be reused. As a proof of concept, zinc oxides (ZnO) nanowire arrays are grown on three-dimensional (3D) nickel foam and are used as a nano-metal oxide based interlayer to enhance the electrochemical performance of Li-S batteries². ZnO nanowires play a key role in chemically capturing polysulphides and remarkably mitigating capacity decay. After successful results, the foam was replaced by a lightweight carbon fibre mat to reduce the battery’s overall weight. Based on a similar design principle, a praline-like flexible interlayer consisting of titanium oxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles and carbon nanofibers allows the chemical adsorption of polysulfides to a robust conductive film. TiO₂ nanoparticles, serving as anchors, can chemically detect and intercept polysulfides in-situ³. The porous conductive carbon backbone helps in the physical absorption of polysulfides and provides redox reaction sites to allow the polysulfides to be reused. More importantly, it offers enough mechanical strength to support a high load TiO₂ nanoparticles (79 wt%) that maximizes their chemical role, and can accommodate the large volume changes. A significant enhancement in cycle stability and rate capability has been achieved by incorporating our interlayer with a sulfur/carbon nanotube composite cathode. These results herald a new approach to advanced lithium–sulfur batteries using nanostructured metal oxide based interlayers.

Lithium-sulfur battery is recognized as one of the most promising energy storage devices with high energy density, however, the application and commercialization are severely hindered by both the practical gravimetric and volumetric energy densities due to the low sulfur content and tap density with light-weight and nonpolar porous carbon materials as sulfur host.
Herein, we have developed some metal oxides and oxyhydroxides, i.g. NiCo2O4, NiFe2O4, and CoOOH, as carbon-free sulfur immobilizer to fabricate sulfur-based composite as cathode for lithium-sulfur battery. These non-carbon matrix materials for sulfur can accelerate the catalytic conversion kinetics of lithium polysulfides by strong chemical interaction, successfully alleviating the shuttle isuue and leading to a good cycle stability. The S/NiCo2O4 composite presents a high gravimetric capacity of 1125 mAh g-1-composite at 0.1C rate, and a low fading rate of 0.039% per cycle over 1500 cycles at 1C rate. In particular, the S/NiCo2O4 composite with the high tap density of 1.66 g cm-3 delivers a large volumetric capacity of 1867 mAh cm-3-composite, almost twice that of the conventional S/carbon composite. With ultrahigh sulfur content of 91.8 wt% and tap density of 1.26 g cm-3, the sulfur/CoOOH composite delivers high gravimetric capacity and volumetric capacity of 1199.4 mAh g-1-composite and 1511.3 mAh cm-3 at 0.1C rate, respectively. Meanwhile, the sulfur-based composite presents satisfactory cycle stability with a slow capacity decay rate of 0.09% per cycle within 500 cycles at 1C rate. The works provide a new strategy to realize the combination of gravimetric energy density, volumetric energy density and good electrochemical performance of lithium-sulfur battery.

Silicon (Si) has been widely considered as potential high capacity anode material in Li-ion batteries due to its desirable properties: (i) high theoretical specific capacity (1672 mA h g-1), (ii) nontoxicity and (iii) low cost and natural abundance [1]. Despite its favourable comparison to commercial graphite anodes (theoretical capacity of 372 mA h g-1), the implementation of bulk Si anode has been hindered by the large volume change during the charging and discharging cycle (~ 300%). Such structural instability results in loss of contact with the other electrode constituents and self-destruction [2]. Another adverse feature is the limited Li⁺ ion diffusivity and electronic conductivity of bulk Si at room temperature.
A scalable method of producing carbon (ultrafine silicon composite electrode) was developed using the Virtual Cathode Deposition technique [3]. As-deposited coatings contained silicon nano-crystallites encapsulated in a novel polymorph of mesoporous disordered carbon matrix. The architecture of the electrode offers close-order integration of both materials ensuring fast Li⁺ ion diffusivity and mixed-(ionic/electronic) conductivity as well as alleviating Si volume change during cycling. The composite carbon polymorph-silicon anode tested versus Li displayed a first cycle specific capacity of more than 2000 mAh g^-1 retaining in the following cycles ~1200 mAh g^-1 at a 0.1C rate. The good cyclability (over 80 cycles) demonstrated the effectiveness of such Si - carbon encapsulation, addressing the instability issues of Si-based anodes.

Pyrometallurgical recycling of lead-acid battery (LAB) produces high-purity metallic lead (99.99% purity) through an energy-intensive and polluting process (1). The alternative hydrometallurgical method directly recovers lead oxide from spent lead paste, although many impurities may not be removed. We have experienced a breakthrough success in NovoPb, an ongoing project to implement a sustainable LAB recycling process in a 1 ton capacity pilot plant at Minas Gerais in Brazil(2).
During NovoPb, a 3-step hydrometallurgical process was used for synthesis of high-purity leady oxide derived from spent LAB samples of industry pastes. Dessulfuration with NaOH, followed by acetic acid and H₂O₂ leaching of LAB paste removed the impurities and generated pure lead acetate solution (3), a blank canvas. A lead complex with citric acid(4) was formed to remove lead from the solution in order to produce a high-purity nanostructured leady oxide, by calcining it at a much lower temperature (350°C) than usual smelted lead (1200°C), saving energy and reducing hazardous gas emissions.
The characterization of the 10 LAB pastes were performed by XRD, XRF, SEM/EDS and basic chemical analysis to successfully reproduce 20 recycling experiments at the laboratory. Factorial design was applied to determine optimal reaction conditions. 2.5 kg of lead citrate were synthesized and characterized by TGA, XRD, and SEM, then calcined to obtain leady oxide. Acid absorption, BET surface area, SEM/EDS, XRD and ICP-OES results show nanostructured leady oxide, 99,9% purity, with larger surface area and acid absorption than a lead oxide produced by traditional ball mill process.
This research is part of the Embrapii project of the Vitoria Innovation Center of the Federal Institute of Espirito Santo, in partnership with the University of Cambridge, Innovate UK, Brazilian companies Tudor MG de Baterias, Antares Reciclagem LTDA, Embrapii and the British company, Aurelius Environmental.

Li-ion technology might have reached its limit especially when it comes to the energy requirements for the next generation of electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Lithium-sulphur batteries could represent a good alternative because they have higher theoretical energy than conventional lithium-ion batteries and are a good candidate for application in the growing e-mobility and stationary market.
There are, however, technical issues which should be properly addressed, such as the low conductivity and the large volume variation of sulphur, as well as the formation of polysulphides during cycling, especially, the back and forth movement of polysulphides between cathode and anode, known as the shuttle effect.
In this presentation, a systematic description of the approach which aims at mitigating these issues is overviewed and the electrochemical performances associated with the different proposed solutions are discussed. To better understand the failure mechanisms of lithium-sulphur batteries, important novel characterization techniques applied to energy storage systems are also reviewed. Finally, the state of the art of lithium-sulphur batteries technology is presented from a geopolitical perspective by providing a comparison between the results achieved in this field by the main world industrial and academic actors, namely Asia, North America, and Europe [1,2]

Abstract
The recovery of Pb from the spent lead-acid battery paste is achieved conventionally through pyrometallurgical processes. This process requires relatively high temperature (~1,100 °C) for the decomposition of PbSO4 which is a dominant compound in the paste along with PbO2, PbO, metallic Pb and other impurities. The high-temperature pyrometallurgical process releases SO2 gas and Pb particulates into the environment, raising serious environmental concerns. The hydro-electro metallurgical process, which has been developed as an alternative, also consumes high energy and uses toxic acids like HBF4 or H2SiF6. The need for an eco-friendly and cost-effective recycling process for the recovery of spent battery paste [1,2,3,4], is not only critical but also very timely. Indeed, the market size of secondary lead-acid batteries is forecasted to reach over $95 billion USD by 2026 [5]. Within this market, the recycling of lead-acid batteries is a revenue stream worth around $14-16 billion USD by 2025 [6].
In this paper, we present our work towards a fully hydrometallurgical, eco-friendly and cost-effective process. The recovery of Pb is achieved through the synthesis of ultrapure lead-citrate, which is obtained directly from spent lead-acid battery paste via desulphurisation and treatment with organic acids. Unlike previous iterations of this process, we have optimised the conditions to achieve production of ultra-pure lead-citrate, 99.99%, with minimum consumption of reagents. This paper shows how it is possible to minimise production costs for the recycled lead compounds to the extent that the process is as cost-effective, if not superior economically, when compared to the incumbent technology. The scalability and economic improvement of the latest iteration of this now-patented hydrometallurgical process greatly facilitate the globalisation of this innovative technology.
Keywords
Lead, battery, recycling, lead citrate, hydrometallurgy, organic acids

Lithium-ion batteries have a limited lifespan, ever-growing demand and adequate presence of critical metals such as lithium and cobalt make their recycling inevitable. In this study, discarded mixed mobile batteries were discharged, dismantled, and separated into cathode and anode sheets, followed by attritor crushing. The cathode material comprises LiCoO2 and LiMn2O4, while graphite is present in the anode material. The cathode material was indigenously reduced with purified graphite at different times and dosages. A statistical design is employed for optimization of reduction parameters and obtained magnetic fraction contains cobalt and manganese oxide whereas graphite and lithium carbonate were found in nonmagnetic fraction and dried solution. The composition, saturation magnetization and product phases obtained at optimum conditions (900 °C, 7.5 % graphite, 45 min and 800 °C, 7.5 % graphite, 45 min) are Co: ~80-84 %, Mn: 6~10 %, saturation magnetization:105-114 emu/g with Co, CoO and MnO phases, respectively.

Si has recently been commerialized as an active material in anodes for Li-ion batteries. Due to large volume expansion, however, it experiences low amounts of graphite anodes during Li-insertion, resulting in a small capacity of increase over purely graphitic ones. The present talk illustrates new Si based anodes comprised of Si nanoparticles that are coated with polymers. These configurations allow for improved mechanical properties over those of pure Si nanoparticle anodes. A mechanics model is formulated that can predict and design criteria that can prolong the mechanical and electrochemical stability of high content Si based anodes. The model predictions are in agreement with the experimental observations and can also capture the size effect for which fractures can be avoided by tuning the particle diameter and polymer coating. Different polymers have been considered, including conductive and non-conductive ones, while in some cases, the binder was not added in producing the porous electrode.

Materials such as Si, Al and Sn are considered as active sites during the formation of Li-alloys. During the Li insertion, the volume of the active sites expands over 100% at maximum capacity. As a result, large internal stresses are produced. The effect of stresses is widely acknowledged. As the size of these particles is small, however, the gradient effects cannot be ignored. In this paper, we present, for the first time, the size effects within a purely gradient elasticity framework. A coupled mechanical equilibrium and Li diffusion accounting for the effect of stress on diffusion and the effect of diffusion on stress are considered. We also consider the effect of concentration on the Young's modulus. As the constitutive equation involves higher order gradient terms, the conventional finite element method is not suitable. Moreover, the two-way coupling necessitates the need for higher order shape functions. In this study, we employ B-spline functions with the framework of the iso-geometric analysis for spatial discretization. The effect of internal characteristic length on the concentration evolution and the hydrostatic stresses are studied. It is observed that the internal length has significant impact on the stress amplitudes.

Reducing charge-discharge overpotential is helpful to enhance efficiency and cyclability of Li−O2 batteries. In a common non-aqueous Li−O2 cell, the overpotential is largely related to the formation and decomposition processes of solid-state Li2O2. Although several intrinsic properties of Li2O2 have been considered to contribute to the high overpotential, such as the low electrical conductivity, slow dynamics, large particle aggregations, and side-reaction products, et.al,1-4 a fundamental study of specific relationship between overpotential and electrochemical reactions associating with structural evolution of Li2O2 has yet to be undertaken. Besides, the underlying mechanism of the oxygen evolution reaction on charge remains less understood.
To address the above problems, in this work, we proposed a Pt modification strategy to tune cathode architectural to optimize catalytic and electrical properties as well as electrode dynamics. We employed two different approaches of magnetron sputtering and thermal reduction to realize the Pt surface-coating and bulk-doping, respectively. Both could significantly reduce the charge overpotentials of Li−O2 cells with a higher performance from the bulk-doped catalyst. Meanwhile, systematic studies showed an unprecedented relevancy between overpotential and structural evolution of Li2O2, and the Pt nano-composition in the cathode was found to directly affect the formation and decomposition mechanism of Li2O2. Furthermore, we carried out the density functional theory calculations that provided molecular insights into the catalytic role of Pt and Pt3Co nanocrystals (resulting from surface-coating and bulk-coating, respectively) in reducing the charge overpotential.
As a result, the nanoscale bulk-doping approach was demonstrated to be a promising strategy to address the insufficient catalytic and electrical properties and sluggish electrode dynamics of oxygen cathodes for Li−O2 batteries. The exclusive insight into structural evolution of Li2O2 with the reduced charge-discharge overpotential could afford favorable theoretical investigates for further explorations on cathode materials.

The study of surfaces and interfaces is one of the main fields of material science. This domain requires specific techniques of surface analysis such as X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), Secondary Ion Mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) or Scanning Probe Microscopies (AFM a�� STM). In this field, surface and interface phenomena occurring in Li(Na, Mg, Ka��.) batteries during cycling (including liquid or solid electrolyte) play a key role for their performances. Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) formed upon cycling leads to a double-edged problematic: its formation lowers the coulombic efficiency and causes irreversible capacity loss, but it also passivates the electrode from the electrolyte and prevents further aging processes. The present talk aims to obtain new sets of information on the in-depth spatial distribution of SEI species within the electrode over cycling by ToF-SIMS (surface and depth-profile experiments), XPS (using Ag source to increase the depth of analysis compared with the conventional Al source) and Auger Spectroscopy.
Several systems were considered to illustrate this talk: First is the study of Full cells as Li4Ti5O12(LTO)/LiNi3/5Co1/5Mn1/5O2 (NMC) and LTO/LiMn2O4 (LMO). The interactions between the two electrodes during cycling are investigated, especially the deposition and insertion of metallic compounds within the LTO electrode, which can directly influence on the stability of the cells and their electrochemical performances. More specifically, we focus this presentation on the results obtained by Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). Although ToF-SIMS is a recent surface analysis method in the field of battery materials, measurements acquired with this technique could give in-depth elemental and molecular information about the interfacial layers through sputter-depth-profiling experiments. Thanks to a high sensitivity and 2 D and 3D imaging capability, it will be particularly useful to follow the deposition of low amounts of metallic species and especially manganese within the SEI layer. Moreover, the evolution of the SEI chemical composition and spatial distribution upon cycling is also reported to better understand the protective role of the SEI.

Secondly, surface modification of LTO, by synthetizing a chemisorbed thin fluorinated layer upon Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) anode material is considered to manage the passivating power of the SEI leading to enhanced electrochemical performances.
Overall, this talk presents the relation between electrochemical performances of Li batteries and surface and interface phenomena.

The poor lithium resources and high cost limited the application of lithium-ion batteries in energy storage. Due to the low cost and similar electrochemical performance with lithium-ion batteries, potassium ion batteries are the promising candidates for energy storage.
We, for the first time, reported electrochemical potassium insertion in graphite in a nonaqueous electrolyte, which can exhibit a high reversible capacity of 273 mAh/g. Ex-situ XRD studies confirm that KC36, KC24, and KC8 sequentially form upon potassiation, whereas depotassiation recovers graphite through phase transformations in an opposite sequence. Graphite shows moderate rate capability and relatively fast capacity fading. To improve the performance of carbon K-ion anodes, we designed two low-density nongraphitic carbon: soft carbon and hard carbon. Those low-density carbons have large graphene layer, which has lots of benefits for high-performance potassium ion batteries. Firstly, the large graphene layer can accommodate large volume change, leading good cycling performance; secondly, K+ can fast extract/insert out/into the graphene layer. Therefore, both soft and hard carbons exhibit cyclability and rate capability much superior to that of graphite. Our work opened up a new paradigm toward rechargeable K-ion batteries.
To get high capacity, carbon-coated Bi nanocomposite was designed as well. It exhibits a high capacity and extremely high rate ability. These works push forward the development of rechargeable K-ion battery

Confucius wrote that “The beginning of wisdom is to call things by their proper name.” But as we transition towards a cleaner and greener economy, confusion is as rife as ever [1]. Environmental sciences are riddled with jargon and contradictory studies. The concepts of ‘circular economy’ and ‘carbon footprints’ have failed to inspire the general population. The divide between policy makers, activists and members of the public is a gaping chasm. While the search for a sustainable way of life rumbles on, we ask: where will the waste go?
In the fast-moving world of technology and innovation, it takes all the running you can do to stay in the same place. Take Moore’s Law as an example: the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles about every two years. Today’s technology and gadgets are tomorrow’s outdated scrap.
But at what cost?
As we move from one technology to another, in a world landscaped by ever-changing political moods, a great deal may be lost in translation. For example, the transition to electric vehicles depends upon mass production and deployment of Lithium-Ion batteries. But is the move away from fossil fuel and towards electric-powered vehicles as clean as we think it is?
Current automotive technology uses lead-acid batteries: a product synonymous with pollution because it supports petrol and diesel engines. As for the recycling of lead batteries (i.e. smelting), this activity is considered by some as being the world’s most polluting industry. [2]
While the world is obsessing with electric vehicle technology, we have forgotten that the lead-acid battery is the world’s most successfully recycled commodity product. [3] In the US, almost 100% of these batteries are collected and recycled. The same cannot be said for Lithium-Ion batteries which are currently nowhere near as recycled as lead batteries. Moreover, electric vehicles are only as clean as the electricity they run on. Indeed, if we burn coal to produce electricity, then all we have done is shift the carbon footprint from the vehicle to the point of production of electricity.
The lead-acid battery was invented in 1859, that is, before the mechanical generation of electricity. It has been around for more than 150 years. Its market share is expected to reach $95 billion USD by 2026. [4] Lead batteries can support tomorrow’s Cleantech industry and our transition to a zero-waste economy, but for this to happen, the incumbent lead recycling industry must become cleaner, more energy-efficient and less wasteful.
Aurelius and our innovative technology for the recycling of lead battery paste, the active ingredient in lead batteries, aim to catalyse this change. Our technology offers a water-based (i.e. hydrometallurgical) alternative to the harmful and wasteful practices of the incumbent industry.
The process, dubbed FenixPb, is ‘energy positive’, generating around 4,000 MWh of thermal energy per 10,000 tonnes throughput. It is also zero-waste; it does not produce any slag or noxious gases; and it reduces the carbon footprint by approximately 85%.
But this is not where we stop: we aim to tackle waste and the practice of land-filling. Our vision is a web of industries where one stream's waste is another stream's in-feed: bridging linear and wasteful processes to create a pollution-free, zero-waste future.
We will catalyse a shift away from land-filling by converting waste into useful products (i.e. without incineration or the burning of waste, which are wasteful practices). For example, we can produce reagents for the FenixPb recycling process directly from municipal waste and from waste battery acid. This prevents the land-filling of municipal waste, recovers useful materials (such as plastic, metal and glass) and avoids the destruction and land-filling of battery acid.
Our objective is to achieve industrial synergy between different processes and waste streams: imagine waste from one industry being used as a raw material for another industrial process. This is analogous to biological ecosystems, where nothing ever goes to waste.
The projects we aim to synergise include the recycling of lead-acid batteries, lithium-ion batteries, spent tyres, industrial catalysts, acid treatment and more. To put it simply: we harvest resources from urban waste, to create a waste management space where nothing but waste enters and nothing but products leave.