Rare Earths (RE) permanent magnets are essential components for Europe's successful green and digital transition However, the entire value chain of RE magnetic materials depends on imports, which are highly vulnerable in current global supply chain models. 

To mitigate this situation, EU Regulation plans that at least 25% of the EU's annual consumption of permanent magnets should be covered by recycling capacities by 2030. Researchers in the EU H2020 project SUSMAGPRO consortium have shown that hydrogen can be used as a very efficient recycling method to extract NdFeB magnet powder from various EOL Components in the IP protected Hydrogen-based Processing of Magnet Scrap (HPMS). 

On exposure to hydrogen the sintered NdFeB magnets break down into a friable, demagnetised, hydrogenated powder containing an interstitial hydride of Nd₂Fe₁₄BH_X (10 microns) and smaller particles (< 1 micron) from the grain-boundary phase NdH_2.7. This process delivers a sustainable source of magnetic material for the production of sintered, polymer bonded and metal-injection moulded magnets [1]. 

The talk will present numerous results along the whole value chain of magnet recycling, including automatic dismantling of magnet containing products, magnets extraction, HPMS recycling, production of recycled magnets and demonstrator testing [1-5]. 

It will also discuss best practices and bottlenecks of the processes as an outlook for successful design-for-recycling of future applications. 

Rare Earths (RE) permanent magnets are essential components for Europe's successful green and digital transition However, the entire value chain of RE magnetic materials depends on imports, which are highly vulnerable in current global supply chain models. 

To mitigate this situation, EU Regulation plans that at least 25% of the EU's annual consumption of permanent magnets should be covered by recycling capacities by 2030. Researchers in the EU H2020 project SUSMAGPRO consortium have shown that hydrogen can be used as a very efficient recycling method to extract NdFeB magnet powder from various EOL Components in the IP protected Hydrogen-based Processing of Magnet Scrap (HPMS). 

On exposure to hydrogen the sintered NdFeB magnets break down into a friable, demagnetised, hydrogenated powder containing an interstitial hydride of Nd₂Fe₁₄BH_X (10 microns) and smaller particles (< 1 micron) from the grain-boundary phase NdH_2.7. This process delivers a sustainable source of magnetic material for the production of sintered, polymer bonded and metal-injection moulded magnets [1]. 

The talk will present numerous results along the whole value chain of magnet recycling, including automatic dismantling of magnet containing products, magnets extraction, HPMS recycling, production of recycled magnets and demonstrator testing [1-5]. 

It will also discuss best practices and bottlenecks of the processes as an outlook for successful design-for-recycling of future applications. 

The European Union has set itself the goal of achieving climate neutrality by 2050, a milestone that depends on the continent's ability to develop and implement clean energy and mobility solutions in a way that is both economically viable and environmentally sustainable. The amount of critical raw materials (CRM) needed to facilitate this energy transition is significant. In addition, industrial and household appliances will need to meet stringent energy efficiency standards to support this transition. The most energy-efficient electric motors and generators contain rare earth permanent magnets. While EU companies are world leaders in the production of electric motors, they are completely dependent on imports for the entire value chain of rare earth magnet materials. (Bernd Schaferet.al, A Report of the Rare Earth Magnets and Motors Cluster, Berlin 2021).

Rare earth elements (REEs) are essential components of these permanent magnets, which are critical for many applications that are vital to Europe's future. It is well known that REEs from China have been the main source for Europe, that supplies are uncertain, and that the Chinese production chain is generally unsustainable. At the same time, the demand for REEs for the production of new PMs is expected to double in 15 years.

In light of this data, our work focuses on the collection of EOL magnets and the sustainable recycling and reprocessing of PM from sources, concentrating on the most common and readily available source of economically recyclable electric motors: domestic appliances. We are developing new dismantling and recovery processes for PM on high-availability scrap and reprocessing lines. In HPMS (Hydrogen Processing of Magnetic Scrap)^1,2 we use an already established method of hydrogenation followed by grinding, degassing, and coating of sensitive powders. The HDDR (Hydrogenation-Disproportionation-Desorption-Regeneration)³ process has been implemented to simplify and minimize the steps in the recycling process.

Initial, ongoing pilot trials for the production of sintered and bonded magnets from recycled magnets confirm the waste-free, economic processing and future independence from unstable REE sources. For the production of sintered magnets, a new sustainable process of rapid consolidation is used, while for bonded magnets the most sensitive part to protect the reactive powders is the coating with a few monolayers of chemically bound coating precursor. In addition to magnetic measurements, various analytical techniques (SEM, HRTEM, XPS) are used to characterize the powders obtained by HPMS and HDDR processes, as well as the final magnets.

*This work is part of the “INSPIRES” project financed by EIT RawMaterials, Proposal Number 20090 (project website: https://eitrawmaterials.eu/project/inspires/).

Achieving a climate-neutral and circular economy by 2050 is a significant goal for Europe, emphasising innovation in clean energy and e-mobility. A major role in this transformation have permanent magnets (PM), vital in electric vehicles and renewable energy technologies. Despite their specialised market, they have a strategic impact on the EU's mobility sector and its dependence on imports. Given their critical role in numerous industrial and consumer applications, there is a pressing need for innovative approaches in their production and recycling.
For over 30 years, our research group at the Jožef Stefan Institute has led research and innovations in PMs, focusing on enhancing magnetic properties and efficient use of critical material resources. The most recent activities towards these goals are commonly referred to as grain-boundary engineering, focused on manipulating the non-magnetic two-dimensional-like grain boundary regions between the magnetic matrix grains to enhance the overall coercivity of the entire magnet. Simultaneously, we have explored various recycling and reprocessing strategies to enable the sustainable reuse of magnet waste into new functional magnets with only a little or negligible loss of overall magnetic performance. 
In this presentation, we will discuss several case studies illustrating how atomic-level structural and chemical analysis enhances our understanding of key physical and chemical mechanisms, which are essential for optimising magnetic performance and developing effective recycling strategies. For that purpose, we employed Advanced Transmission Electron Microscopy along with specialised analytical techniques such as Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy and Electron Holography, which provides quantitative magnetic characterisation at nanometer resolution. Among other findings, we will highlight how various grain-boundary structural refinement strategies during spark plasma sintering (SPS) influence the coercivity of Nd–Fe–B bulk magnets [1,2]. Additionally, we will discuss innovative electrochemical recycling techniques for sintered Nd–Fe–B PMs [3,4]. These techniques, which include direct recovery of the matrix phase and pure metal winning, are still emerging but have already shown promising results in our studies. 
 

Achieving a climate-neutral and circular economy by 2050 is a significant goal for Europe, emphasising innovation in clean energy and e-mobility. A major role in this transformation have permanent magnets (PM), vital in electric vehicles and renewable energy technologies. Despite their specialised market, they have a strategic impact on the EU's mobility sector and its dependence on imports. Given their critical role in numerous industrial and consumer applications, there is a pressing need for innovative approaches in their production and recycling.
For over 30 years, our research group at the Jožef Stefan Institute has led research and innovations in PMs, focusing on enhancing magnetic properties and efficient use of critical material resources. The most recent activities towards these goals are commonly referred to as grain-boundary engineering, focused on manipulating the non-magnetic two-dimensional-like grain boundary regions between the magnetic matrix grains to enhance the overall coercivity of the entire magnet. Simultaneously, we have explored various recycling and reprocessing strategies to enable the sustainable reuse of magnet waste into new functional magnets with only a little or negligible loss of overall magnetic performance. 
In this presentation, we will discuss several case studies illustrating how atomic-level structural and chemical analysis enhances our understanding of key physical and chemical mechanisms, which are essential for optimising magnetic performance and developing effective recycling strategies. For that purpose, we employed Advanced Transmission Electron Microscopy along with specialised analytical techniques such as Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy and Electron Holography, which provides quantitative magnetic characterisation at nanometer resolution. Among other findings, we will highlight how various grain-boundary structural refinement strategies during spark plasma sintering (SPS) influence the coercivity of Nd–Fe–B bulk magnets [1,2]. Additionally, we will discuss innovative electrochemical recycling techniques for sintered Nd–Fe–B PMs [3,4]. These techniques, which include direct recovery of the matrix phase and pure metal winning, are still emerging but have already shown promising results in our studies. 

Advancements in e-mobility and green power generation are crucial for fulfilling the Green Deal's objectives of creating a low-carbon society. Central to this goal are high-performing permanent magnets, such as Nd-Fe-B and Sm-Co, essential components in electric motors and generators. Consequently, intensive research into these magnets is critical to enhance their performance. However, a significant challenge is the scarce availability of these rare earth elements, designated as essential raw materials by the EU. Therefore, comprehensive approaches in resource-efficient processing, reprocessing, and recycling of these magnets are vital for the future development of permanent magnets. We are dedicated to researching and improving the viability of reprocessing and recycling Nd-Fe-B and other permanent magnets. Techniques such as electrochemical separation via anodic oxidation have successfully recycled Nd-Fe-B scrap into Nd₂Fe₁₄B matrix phase grains or break them down into rare earth-based precursors [1]. Moreover, Sm-Co permanent magnets have also shown promising recyclability through electrochemical methods [2]. Progress in scaling up recycling methods for Nd-Fe-B has been achieved through selective electrochemical and chemical approaches [3-4]. These innovative recycling and upcycling techniques pave the way for completely reengineering Nd-Fe-B magnets from the ground up, offering a break from traditional methods and potential enhancements in magnet performance metrics like energy products. Our current research also explores rapid consolidation methods, such as spark plasma sintering, which promise to advance Nd-Fe-B magnet development further [4].